CHAPTER – 5: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Meaning of Development

Development refers to the progressive, orderly and predictable changes that begin at conception and continue throughout the life span. It includes changes that occur during growth as well as changes associated with ageing and old age.

Development is not limited to physical changes. From conception until death, individuals change physically, cognitively, linguistically and socially. These changes can be observed in the family, school, peer groups and society. Development occurs in an integrated manner, affecting different areas of a person's life.

Development is influenced by the interaction of three major processes:

1. Biological processes: These are mainly influenced by genes inherited from parents. They affect physical characteristics such as height, body structure and other physical features.
2. Cognitive processes: These involve mental activities such as thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, memory and decision-making.
3. Socio-emotional processes: These involve changes in relationships and interactions with other people, emotions, cooperation and competition.

All these processes work together and influence the development of an individual throughout life.

Life Span Perspective on Development

The Life Span Perspective (LSP) explains development as a continuous process throughout human life. Its major assumptions are:

1. Development is lifelong

Development begins at conception and continues until old age. It includes both achievements and failures, and changes in one area may influence other areas of development.

2. Development is multidimensional

Biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes are interconnected and influence one another throughout life.

3. Development is multidirectional

Some abilities may increase while others may decrease. For example, adults may become wiser through experience and make better decisions, while performance in tasks requiring speed and accuracy may decline with age.

4. Development is plastic

Human abilities can be modified and improved throughout life. However, the degree of plasticity differs from one individual to another.

5. Development is influenced by historical conditions

People belonging to different generations experience different historical and social conditions. For example, the experiences of young people who lived during India's freedom struggle would differ greatly from those of young people living in present-day India.

6. Development is studied by many disciplines

Human development is studied by several disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology and neuroscience. Each discipline contributes to our understanding of development.

7. Development occurs within a context

Individuals respond and behave according to their inherited characteristics and their physical, social, historical and cultural environments.

Factors Influencing Development

The complete collection of genes possessed by an individual is called the genotype. However, not all genetic characteristics are directly visible.

The observable and measurable expression of an individual's genotype is called the phenotype. Phenotypic characteristics include physical features such as height, weight, eye colour, skin characteristics and psychological characteristics such as intelligence, creativity and personality.

An individual's characteristics develop through the interaction between heredity and environment. Genes provide a basic blueprint and influence the pattern and timing of development. However, genes do not work independently. Development always takes place within an environmental context.

Children may also influence and select their environments according to their abilities and interests. For example, a child who is talented in music may spend more time practising music and seek opportunities related to music. Similarly, a child interested in sports may prefer sports-related activities.

Thus, development results from a continuous and complex interaction between heredity and environment.

Context of Development

Development does not occur in isolation. It always takes place within a particular social and cultural context.

Important life transitions such as entering school, becoming an adolescent, getting a job, marriage, parenthood and retirement are influenced by both biological changes and environmental conditions.

Bronfenbrenner's Contextual View of Development

Psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner emphasized the importance of environmental factors in human development. According to his theory, development is influenced by several interconnected environmental systems.

1. Microsystem

The microsystem is the immediate environment in which an individual lives and interacts directly with others.

Examples include:

• Family
• School
• Teachers
• Friends and peers
• Neighbourhood

2. Mesosystem

The mesosystem refers to the relationships between different microsystems.

For example:

• Relationship between parents and teachers
• Relationship between parents and a child's friends

These relationships can influence the child's development and behaviour.

3. Exosystem

The exosystem consists of social settings in which the individual may not directly participate but which can still affect their development.

For example, a parent's transfer to another place of work may create stress in the family and influence interactions with the child. The availability and quality of schools, libraries, healthcare and recreational facilities may also affect development.

4. Macrosystem

The macrosystem refers to the wider culture, values, customs, beliefs and social systems in which an individual lives.

5. Chronosystem

The chronosystem includes changes and events that occur throughout an individual's life as well as important socio-historical circumstances.

Examples include:

• Divorce of parents
• Changes in the economic condition of the family
• Major social or historical changes

According to Bronfenbrenner, a child's development is significantly influenced by the complex network of environments surrounding the child.

Overview of Developmental Stages

Human life passes through different stages. Certain behaviours and skills are easier to learn during particular stages of development. The skills and achievements expected at a particular stage are called developmental tasks.

1. Prenatal Stage

The prenatal stage begins at conception and continues until birth. Prenatal development is influenced by several maternal factors, including:

• Mother's age
• Nutrition
• Emotional condition
• Diseases and infections
• Exposure to harmful substances

Certain infections during pregnancy may adversely affect the developing foetus. Another major threat is teratogens.

Teratogens

Teratogens are environmental agents that can interfere with normal prenatal development and may result in developmental abnormalities.

Examples include:

• Certain drugs
• Alcohol and tobacco
• Infections
• Radiation
• Environmental pollution
• Toxic chemicals

Exposure to harmful substances during pregnancy can negatively affect foetal development. Radiation such as X-rays and exposure to certain industrial chemicals may also create risks. Pollutants such as carbon monoxide, mercury and lead can be harmful to the developing child.

2. Infancy

Infancy is the period immediately following birth. Newborn babies possess several basic abilities necessary for survival. They can breathe, suck, swallow and eliminate bodily wastes.

During the early weeks of life, newborns can respond to sounds and can distinguish their mother's voice from the voices of other people. They can also imitate some simple movements, such as opening the mouth or protruding the tongue.

Motor Development

A newborn's movements are largely controlled by reflexes. Reflexes are automatic and built-in responses to particular stimuli. They are important for survival and provide a foundation for later motor development.

Some reflexes, such as coughing, blinking and yawning, continue throughout life. Other reflexes and movements gradually disappear as the brain and nervous system mature and voluntary control develops.

As the infant grows, the brain, muscles and nervous system mature. This leads to the development of increasingly refined motor skills.

Important motor skills include:

• Reaching and grasping objects
• Sitting
• Crawling
• Standing
• Walking
• Running

The general sequence of motor development is similar across children, although there may be minor individual differences in the timing of these achievements.